Joseph LaLiberté – Deserter

One of the more obscure individuals mentioned in the journals of the Corps of Discovery was a man hired as a civilian, Joseph LaLiberté, likely used as an interpreter to the Oto people. Due to differences in spelling, LaLiberté may have been known as Le Bartee, Barter, Jo Barter, or Joab Barton. On Sunday, July 29, 1804, Lewis and Clark sent La Liberté with an Indian man to invite chiefs to meet with the expedition for a council. No one from the expedition would see La Liberté again until August 7, when Lewis and Clark ordered a search for another deserter, Private Moses Reed. According to Clark’s orders, George Drouillard, Francois Labiche, and two others were to put Reed to death if he did not give up peaceably (Clark, August 7, 1804). On August 17, Labiche returned to the expedition and reported that they had caught LaLiberté, “but he decived [sic] and got away” (Clark). As far as Reed, after he appealed for clemency, Clark ordered that he run the gauntlet four times (Clark, August 18, 1804). This meant that Reed walked through two columns of members of the expedition and each member of the expedition would strike him with switches. Reed could have suffered a total of 828 strokes (Mussulman) by the time the sentence was finished. Traditionally, each stroke required vigor, lest members of the gauntlet suffer the same fate.

In practice, commanders sentenced deserters to 180 lashes administered 25 at a time, although execution was not uncommon (Blyth, 5). At the outbreak of the War of 1812, when the regular army numbered around 19,000 people, commanders issued four death sentences for desertion, with three gaining reprieves. However, as the number of troops climbed to 31,000 in 1814, the number of death sentences climbed to 160, with only 14 reprieved (Grodzinski, 6). Courts martial generally decided the fate of those who deserted. Likely understanding the austere conditions of the expedition, Clark drafted guidelines prior to their departure on how to deal with misbehavior on the part of members of the expedition. In the guidelines, Clark wrote that courts martial would comprise seven individuals: one interpreter or sergeant to act as the president, at least one commanding officer, and five privates (Mussulman). Article 35 of the Articles of War dictated that all the members of the court-martial would give their vote toward a verdict.

The commanders of the expedition would have been bound by the June 30, 1775 Articles of War enacted by the Continental Congress. Depending on the nature of the offense, the court martial would have decided the punishment. According to Articles 8 and 9, for soldiers deserting, the punishment would be at the discretion of a court martial. However, Article 25 requires death for an ‘officer or soldier…who abandons any post committed to their charge’ (Vargas). According to Diffendal et al., there may have been no point to recapturing LaLiberté since he was a civilian and therefore his offense was not as serious, though he did steal a horse. Diffandal et al. may be in the minority, for other sources wrote that LaLiberté would have indeed been bound by the Articles of War (Maurer), particularly Article 32, which read: “All suttlers [sic] and retailers to a camp, and all persons whatsoever, serving with the continental army in the field, though not enlisted soldiers, are to be subject to the articles, rules, and regulations of the continental army.”

Little is known about LaLiberté after he escaped. However, there are a couple of possibilities. According to the St. Louis, Missouri archives, a Joseph LaLiberté married Julie Village on 11 January 1835. Others speculate that he may have lived with the Oto Indians for a number of years (Royot, 171). Others wrote that LaLiberté may have found himself near Jefferson City, MO, and dying under the name of Joab Barton in 1820 (Woodger & Toropov).

Marriage record of Joseph LaLiberté, found in Book 1, p.246 marriage records, recorder of deeds, St. Louis, MO.

References

• Avalon.law.yale.edu. 2022. Avalon Project – Journals of the Continental Congress – Articles of War, June 30, 1775. [online] Available at: <https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/contcong _06-30-75.asp> [Accessed 9 March 2022].
• Blyth, Lance R. "Fugitives from Servitude: American Deserters and Runaway Slaves in Spanish Nacogdoches, 1803-1808." East Texas Historical Journal, vol 38, no. 2, 2000, pp. 3-14.
• Diffendal, Anne P.; Moulton, Gary E.; Shambaugh-Miller, Michael; and Diffendal, Robert F. (1999). "Reconnaissance Survey of Lewis and Clark on the Missouri National Recreational River, Nebraska and South Dakota"(1999). Papers in Natural Resources. 294
• Grodzinski, John R. “”Bloody Provost”: Discipline during the War of 1812.” Canadian Military History, vol. 16, no. 2, 2007, pp. 25-32.
• Maurer, Dan, "Military Justice Under Washington," Military Affairs, vol. 18 (1964-65), 8.
• Mussulman, Joseph. “Discovering Lewis and Clark.” Discovering Lewis and Clark, 2022, http://www.lewis-clark.org/article/2640.
• Royot, Daniel. 2007. Divided Loyalties in a Doomed Empire. Rosemont Publishing & Printing Corp.: Cranbury NJ.
• Vargas, Mark A. "The Military Justice System and the Use of Illegal Punishments as Causes of Desertion in the US Army, 1821-1835." The Journal of Military History, vol. 55, no. 1, 1991, pp. 1-19.
• Woodger, Elin & Toropov, Brandon. (2004). Encyclopedia of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Facts on File: USA.
• W. Winthrop, Military Law and Precedents 17, 45 (2d ed. 1920 reprint) https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.35112101338624&view=1up&seq=14

The post Joseph LaLiberte: Deserter of the Lewis and Clark Expedition appeared first on Lewis & Clark Research Database.

Paul Primeau

Paul Primeau was mentioned little in the journals of Lewis and Clark. Aside from a list of engages, little is known of Primeau. Primeau served as an Arikara interpreter for the expedition. Originally from Chateauguay, Canada, Primeau married Pelagie Bissonet in St. Louis in 1799 (Brown-Trogdon). The captains discharged him from the expedition in the fall of 1804 with Gravelines, Lajeunesse and two others (Clark). However, glimpses of Primeau are found in other references.

Evidence suggests that the Northwest Company may have employedRoc Primeau prior to his work for Lewis and Clark (Johnson). During the expedition, Clark mentioned Primeau sparingly in his journal entries. Primeau appeared in Clark’s entry for November 6, 1804, returning on a pirogue with three others to the Arikaras (Clark). Aside from a few cursory mentions on a roster of engagés, hardly anything else is known about his involvement with the expedition.

There was evidence to suggest that multiple members of the Expedition, including the engagés, were involved in disputes with others or the law. Within the St. Louis Circuit Court archives there are records of Corps of Discovery members John Boley, John Collins, John Colter, George Drouillard, Etienne Malbouf, John Newman, Paul Primeau, Nathaniel Pryor, Isaac White, and Alexander Willard, who all remained in the St. Louis area after the expedition. Primeau’s record comes from 1810. As plaintiff, Primeau sought relief for a debt owed by Louis Lebeaume. Lebeaume apparently owed Primeau for ‘divers [sic] goods, wares, and merchandise’ but failed to pay him. The court ordered the sheriff then to summon Lebeaume (St. Louis Circuit Court Records). Since many transactions occurred through the use of promissory notes rather than currency, in Primeau v. Lebeaume, Lebeaume likely signed a promissory note which he probably could or would not later pay.

In a separate event, Primeau and his family appear again in court records. In 1820, Primeau’s brother-in-law Louis Bissonet and two others, as employees of Pratte and Vasquez, were wounded in an attack by Native Americans. Such occurrences were common at the time; similar to that of George Drouillard who also faced violence from Native Americans after relations soured due to continuing encroachment. Later, when Louis died in 1836, Paul Primeau was appointed as the administrator of Louis’ estate. The heirs to Louis Bissonet’s estate were his brother, his nephew and niece, and his sister Pelagie (Luttig).

When Primeau died in 1851 of old age, he was initially interred in the Rock Springs Cemetery, located in what is today the Central West End neighborhood of St. Louis, MO. The Rock Springs Cemetery was in use from about 1849 to 1866. Even though a few deceased were buried there afterward, the Catholic Church officially abandoned the cemetery in 1899, and the remains of many of the deceased were moved to Calvary Cemetery, north of downtown St. Louis, and a vault beneath St. Bridget of Erin Catholic Church in St. Louis, which subsequently closed. As recent as 2011, other remains have been found and moved from Rock Springs to Calvary (Campbell, Personal communication, 04 May 2022). However, other sources describe findings of human remains near the old Rock Springs cemetery as recently as 2014 (Currier). And many of the remains were moved unclaimed (Campbell). As far as Primeau is concerned, if his remains were not left behind in Rock Springs, he may have been moved to the vault beneath St. Bridget, and then moved to Calvary. Otherwise he may currently lay in section 5 of Calvary cemetery for a section designated ‘known only to God.’ There is a lesser likelihood his remains are in a plot set up by his son, Louis (Campbell, personal communication, 04 May 2022).

References

• Brown-Trogdon, Jo Ann. “The St. Charles Boatmen.” lewis-clark.org, https:// https://lewis-clark.org/members/st-charles-boatmen/
• Campbell, Mike. Email. 03 May 2022. RE: Webform submission from: Contact Us > Widgets > Section Items.
• Clark, William. “November 6, 1804 Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.” Lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu, https://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1804-11-06#lc.jrn.1804-11-06.02
• Currier, Joel. June 6, 2014. “Tomb is found during excavation near St. Louis IKEA site.” St. Louis Post-Dispatch. https://www.stltoday.com/news/local/metro/tomb-is-found-during-excavation-near-st-louis-ikea-site/article_399296f4-e0fd-50a7-81a0-d4e524e91163.html
• Johnson, Simone, A. The French Presence in Kansas, 1673-1854. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/handle/1808/21248/Dinneen_FrenchInKs_full.pdf.txt;jsessionid=FB441FCF34EC501CE5CDA3258D6D0108?sequence=3
• Luttig, John C. Journal of a Fur-trading Expedition on the Upper Missouri: 1812-1813. St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society, 1920.
• Rock Springs Cemetery in Saint Louis, Missouri – find a Grave. (n.d.). Retrieved May 3, 2022, from https://www.findagrave.com/cemetery/31190/rock-springs-cemetery.
• St. Louis Circuit Court Records. Paul Primeau v. Louis Labeaume. (2011). Retrieved May 3, 2022, from http://digital.wustl.edu/legalencodingproject/ccrweb/ccr1810.00088.008.html

The post Paul Primeau appeared first on Lewis & Clark Research Database.

While it is possible that Whitehouse stayed behind and others relayed their experience upon return, there is evidence to suggest that he also attended. As he was dying around 1860, Whitehouse gave his journal to his Catholic confessor (Gatten and Fifer Joseph Whitehouse | Discovering Lewis & Clark ®). If Whitehouse took the sacraments of the Catholic Church seriously to the point where he confessed his sins prior to his passing, he likely would have also attended the Mass where he could witness the discomfort of his comrades during the Catholic mass (Whitehouse May 20, 1804 | Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition). It would not have been a ‘novelty’ to a Catholic; but it would have been a novelty to “them,” as he wrote in his journal.  Due to the documented changes in the Catholic Church, it is possible to make some assumptions pertaining to the service that was held on May 20, 1804. Prior to the second Vatican Council in 1969 which implemented the Novus Ordo (new order of the Mass), Catholic services were conducted in Latin. A Catholic service prior to Novus Ordo conducted in Latin may certainly have looked unique to American members of the expedition. Additionally, whereas Protestant services and Catholic Novus Ordo services would have the pastor facing the congregation, in a traditional Latin mass the priest faces toward the altar, with his back to the laity (Evangelista). Thus, the entire church faces God in their worship.

Lastly, since Catholic services operate on a calendar, it is thus possible to determine what the readings were for that day. In 1804, Easter fell on April 1. The seventh Sunday after Easter was May 20, which also happened to be Pentecost. Using the schedule of readings for the old Tridentine calendar, the reading would have been from Acts 2:1-11 and the Gospel reading would have been from John 14:23-31. These would likely have been the scriptures that the members of the expedition heard.   

As far as Lewis and Clark were concerned, they were both Deists (Slaughter, 20; Mussulman). While Deists accept the concept of providence, generally they do not ascribe to a particular religion or offer any strict allegiance toward one. Even though Clark had his three eldest children baptized Catholic, he also helped to establish the first Episcopal parish in St. Louis (Mussulman). Though it is unknown to what faith the other expedition members ascribed, due to the Great Awakening that had swept the English-speaking world in the 1730s and 1740s, Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists had become the largest Protestant denominations by the start of the 19th century (Library of Congress). Depending on where the members of the expedition hailed from, researchers can make some assumptions. For example, Pennsylvania had a large German population, many of whom were Lutheran. New England was chiefly Congregational and Unitarian. Methodists, Baptists and Presbyterians were growing especially in regions west of the Appalachians. Many folks were happy to support Protestant churches as signs of civilization and community uplift, but this says little about their religious beliefs, if any. The Great Awakening had diversified religion in America in the 18th century, but the early republic was one of the lowest periods in American history for church membership and religious practice (Erickson, Nov. 17). However, there is reason to suggest that the French engagés were at least nominal Catholics. The baptism, marriage, and burial registers at St. Charles Borromeo make note of Jean Baptiste Deschamps, Charles Pineau, Charles Hebert, Paul Primeau, Jean Baptiste Lajeunesse, Etienne Malboeuf, and Pierre Roy. In fact, Father Lusson baptized Charles Pineau at St. Charles Borromeo the week before the expedition left St. Charles (Brown). Deschamps, La Jeunesse, Malboeuf, and Pineau, were among those tasked with returning to St. Louis with Corporal Warfington (Buckley, 51), and Deschamps was listed as the “patroon” [sic] of the engagés (Moore, 3). 

The history of St. Charles Borromeo was indicative of the events surrounding the Louisiana Purchase. While the French had control of the area, a government stipend was paid to priests who ministered in their respective churches. However, once the U.S. had acquired the territory, the stipends ceased, despite U.S. Army Captain Amos Stoddard’s objections. Eventually, Father Lusson left the parish in October 1804, but not before educating the remaining faithful of St. Charles. There was evidence to suggest that Lusson prepared the parish to operate without him, for there were baptisms and burials shortly after Fr. Lusson’s departure performed by laymen Noel Prieur and Pierre Troge (Brown, 29, 30). Pierre Troge would have likely been at the service on May 20, 1804 also. Having moved to St. Charles from Cahokia in 1791, Troge served St. Charles as the parish sacristan, who was in charge of the vestments, sacred objects, and the room in which they were stored. Noted for his poor penmanship and spelling, Troge died in 1812 and was buried under the floor of the original log church (Brown, 26).  

The Council of Trent had formally codified the right for Catholic priests to grant the laity the ability to conduct baptisms and burials in the 16th century.  Both Catholics and Orthodox have always allowed laypersons to baptize and to bury in case of emergency or other exceptional circumstances. By the time of the expedition, the Concordat between Napoleon I and the Pope had smoothed out difficulties between revolutionary France and Rome, and other provisions of Trent would be in force throughout French possessions (Erickson, Nov.11). Even though St. Charles was no longer a French possession, the allowance for the laity to perform baptisms and burials continued in lieu of an assigned priest.  

References

• Brown, Jo Ann. St. Charles Borromeo 200 Years of Faith. The Patrice Press, 1991.
• Brown, Jo Ann. “The St. Charles Boatmen | Discovering Lewis & Clark ®.” The St. Charles Boatmen | Discovering Lewis & Clark ®, Www.lewis-clark.org, 2021, http://www.lewis-clark.org/article/309#footnote3_aba0fao.
• Buckley, Jay H. William Clark: Indian Diplomat. University of Oklahoma Press, 2008.
• Clark, William. “May 20, 1804 | Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.” May 20, 1804 | Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, Lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu, 30 August. 1803, https://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1804-05-20#n04052007.
• Erickson, John. Email to Andrew Fournier. November 11, 2021.
• Erickson, John. Email to Andrew Fournier. November 17, 2021.
• Evangelista, Mark Aurel. “Philippine Sacred Architecture-design Of a Village Chapel.” Vienna University of Technology, 2021.
• Gatten, Robert E., and Barbara Fifer. “Joseph Whitehouse | Discovering Lewis & Clark ®.” Joseph Whitehouse | Discovering Lewis & Clark ®, Www.lewis-clark.org, http://www.lewis-clark.org/article/2583.
• Moore, Robert. “The French Connection of Lewis and Clark.” Le Journal, vol. 25, no. 1, 2009, pp. 1–7.
• Mussulman, Joseph. “Deists in the ‘Wilderness’ | Discovering Lewis & Clark ®.” Deists In the ‘Wilderness’ | Discovering Lewis & Clark ®, Www.lewis-clark.org, 2013, http://www.lewis-clark.org/article/2451#Note4.
• “Religion in Eighteenth-Century America – Religion and the Founding of the American Republic Exhibitions (Library of Congress).” Loc.gov, 2018, www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel02.html.
• Slaughter, Thomas P. Exploring Lewis and Clark: Reflections on men and wilderness. Vintage, 2007.
• Whitehouse, Joseph. “May 20, 1804 | Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.” May 20, 1804 | Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, Lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu, 30 August. 1803, https://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1804-05-20#n04052007.
• TAGS: French Language and the Lewis and Clark Expedition, Lewis and Clark, Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, Lewis and Clark Trail, religion, Joseph Whitehouse, Catholicism

The post Faith of the Expedition appeared first on Lewis & Clark Research Database.

After the Expedition – Francois Rivet

Born circa 1757 in Montreal, Canada, Francois Rivet joined the expedition in 1804. Rivet appeared to be a rather robust and active member of the expedition, adept at helping morale. Rivet was known for dancing on his head (Ordway, November 27, 1804). Rivet’s joie de vivre may explain his long life. Rivet passed away at the approximate age of 95 on September 27, 1852, and was buried two days later in St. Paul, Oregon in the Williamette Valley (S-15, p. 50). Present was one son of Francois, Antoine. Joseph Rivet, Francois’ other son, passed away earlier in the year (S-5, p. 46b) due to alcoholism (A-85). Rivet’s widow, Therese Flathead passed away shortly after Francois. She was buried on October 13, 1852. Her son, Antoine was a witness (S-17, p.51).

According to the archives of the St. Paul Catholic church in St. Paul, Oregon, Rivet had been hunting and trapping for 20 years prior to the expedition. Then, from 1813 to 1824, Rivet worked as an interpreter and hunter (Tubbs & Jenkinson). Rivet had a reported third son in 1816, Francois Jr. (Watson). In 1824, Rivet served as an interpreter for Alexander Ross’ Snake Country Expedition (Elliot). Afterward, he arrived in Oregon to interpret for the Hudson Bay Company and act as “kind of a hedge blacksmith” at Fort Colville in what is now Kettle Falls, Washington (A-85). Francois’ youngest son died in 1830 on a Snake River bound expedition, drowning in a whirlpool in the Dalles (Watson). In 1839, Rivet took a claim south of St. Paul (A-85; Tubbs & Jenkinson). By accounts of the church archives, Rivet became active in the community.

The Catholic Church recognized Francois Rivet’s marriage to Therese Flathead [Tete Platte in French, (Jackson)] in 1838 (Tubbs & Jenkinson), and there is evidence to suggest that Francois and Therese may have originally married in late 1782 (Rivet). Rivet met Therese when she was a young 19-year-old widow with a baby girl (Jackson). Rivet was Therese’ second husband. Her first husband was killed in battle against the Blackfeet (Flora & Courchane). Therese brought her baby daughter, Julia into her marriage with Rivet (Jackson), and Julia took Rivet’s name (Phillips). On July 13, 1840, Rivet was the Godfather to Archange Tyelis, a middle-aged Indian woman who was baptized (B-267, p. 7), and another infant girl of mixed descent (B-295, p. 20) later that year. On November 29, 1840, Rivet was again Godfather to a teenage girl, Catherine Hu (B-33, p. 16). Rivet also served as a witness for three marriages (M-11, p. 59; M-14, p. 67; M-6, p. 86) and was present for the burial of a Joseph PendOreille (S-6, p. 35). Even though Rivet was mentioned briefly on 13 occasions in the Lewis and Clark journals, one can gather a sufficient idea as to who the man was. In fact, Rivet’s active life full of love and loss served as inspiration for a fictional account of his life in The Gates of the Mountains (Henry).

Reference

Elliott, Thompson C. "Journal of Alexander Ross—Snake Country Expedition, 1824." The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society, vol. 14, no. 4, (1913): 366-385.

Flora, Stephanie, and Chalk Courchaine. “Peter Skene Ogden: Pioneer of 1817.” Retrieved from http://www.oregonpioneers.com/bios/PeterSkeneOgden_1817.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjCieDtrd32AhWKD0QIHcmXAL8QFnoECAQQAQ&usg=AOvVaw0GvUoAIxcGc0tBzmheCXOe

Henry, Will. The Gates of the Mountains. NewYork, Random House, 1963.

Jackson, John C. “Old Rivet.” The Magazine of Northwest History vol.18, no. 2 (2004): 1-7

Munnick, Harriet Duncan. 1979. Catholic Church Records of the Pacific Northwest: St. Paul, Oregon 1839-1898. Binford & Mort: Portland, Oregon

Phillips, Lisa. "Transitional Identities: Negotiating Social Transitions in the Pacific NW 1825-1860s." Canadian Political Science Review, vol 2, no. 2, (2008): 21-40.

Rivet, Tom. “François Rivet (1754 – 1852).” Wikitree, 2014, https://www.wikitree.com/ wiki/Rivet-234.

Tubbs, Stephenie Ambrose, and Clay Jenkinson. The Lewis and Clark Companion: An Encyclopedic Guide to the Voyage of Discovery. Macmillan, 2003.

Watson, Bruce McIntyre. Lives Lived West of the Divide: A Biographical Dictionary of Fur Traders Working West of the Rockies, 1793-1858. The University of British Columbia, 2010.

The post After the Expedition: Francois Rivet appeared first on Lewis & Clark Research Database.

Originally, Drouillard was not meant to be part of the expedition. His position as an interpreter was offered to a man named John Conner (Skarsten). Conner was never hired though, and Drouillard was brought on at Fort Kaskaskia in his place. Drouillard’s father was French and his mother was Shawnee. He was proficient in French as well as several Native American languages, and a widely practiced Great Plains sign language. These skills, along with his talent as a hunter and pathfinder, would prove invaluable to the success of the expedition.

Both the Captains’ journals, and the responsibilities that they delegated to Drouillard, speak to the trust and respect that they held for the man. He was entrusted to run letters back and forth between Lewis and Clark during the winter of 1803-1804, when they were camped separately preparing to depart up the Missouri River. Drouillard was also the man sent after the deserters, men referred to as Reed and La Liberte, in early August 1804 (Skarsten).

Over the following months of travel, Drouillard proved why that esteem was so well-deserved. He was a talented riverboat pilot, involved in at least two recorded incidents in which he prevented the boats from upsetting and losing valuable time and supplies (Skarsten). He assisted with navigation and was a member of many successful hunting parties that provided the corps with much needed resources. Perhaps most importantly, his abilities as an interpreter made him a vital part of interactions and negotiations with the Native American peoples that the expedition encountered (Skarsten).

Drouillard was a member of the party that journeyed all the way to the Pacific Ocean, before returning to St. Louis. There, he became a fur trader in partnership with Manuel Lisa. The remainder of his life, in this profession, is well documented and tragically short. On a trapping venture in 1810, just 4 years after the expedition concluded, Drouillard was killed in a conflict with the Blackfeet (Skarsten).

Work Cited:

• Skarsten, M. O. (1964). George Drouillard, Hunter and interpreter for Lewis and Clark and fur trader, 1807-1810. Arthur H. Clark Co.

The post George Drouillard appeared first on Lewis & Clark Research Database.

Jean Baptiste Charbonneau – After the Corps of Discovery

Striking out with his mother Sacagawea and the Corps of Discovery, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau played a unique role in the Lewis and Clark expedition. Having a child along with the expedition served as a form of diplomacy, as potentially hostile Native Americans welcomed the expedition upon realizing the corps had a child in tow (Anderson). Adopted by Clark shortly after the expedition, Jean Baptiste was educated in St. Louis. Charbonneau left for Germany in 1823 to work for Prince Paul of Wurttemberg. Charbonneau became a polyglot, adding English, French, Spanish, and German to several native languages that he spoke (Colby). Charbonneau returned to the U.S. in 1829 (Courchane) and entered the service of the American Fur Company (Historical Society, Utah State).

There is scant evidence of Charbonneau’s whereabouts in the years following his return from Europe. According to Reading, Charbonneau evidently helped find some lost horses for an employee of the American Fur Company. By the fall of 1830, he and his party became lost around American Falls, ID. He set out to find water and spent 11 days trying to relocate his party, only to find that they had been rescued by a Hudson Bay Company employee that came upon them (Historical Society, Utah State). Later, he helped Joseph Meek deliver a dispatch to St. Louis. According to Nathaniel Wyeth, Charbonneau was with Jim Bridger in 1832 (Reading). Jim Bridger was a noted mountain man, trapper, Army scout, and later owner of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. Later that year, Charbonneau traveled to Blackfoot country to trap beaver. William Smith wrote that a “Mr. Shabenare” traveled down the Platte River carrying pelts to St. Louis in 1839-40 (Reading). From 1842 to 1845, Charbonneau served at Bent’s Fort in St. Louis (Reading).

R. B. Sage, a 19th century American writer and journalist, commented on the man Charbonneau. He wrote that Charbonneau “proved to be a gentleman of superior information.” Commenting on his intelligence and multilingualism, Sage continued:

His mind, also, was well stored with choice reading, and enriched by extensive travel and observation. Having visited most of the important places, both in England, France, and Germany, he knew how to turn his experience to good advantage. There was a quaint humor and shrewdness in his conversation, so garbed with intelligence and perspicuity, that he at once insinuated himself into the good graces of listeners, and commanded their admiration and respect (Historical Society, Utah State).

One notable assignment was as a guide for the Mormon Battalion, in 1846, during the Mexican-American War. President Polk then instructed Secretary of War William Marcy to prepare the orders for the formation of a battalion of volunteers from among the Mormons in Iowa. The President hoped to “attach them to our country and prevent them from taking part against us” (Polk). The battalion set out in July of that year.

Route of the Mormon Battalion. Map courtesy of Kevin Henson.

In August 1846, the battalion mustered under the command of Lieutenant Colonel James Allen. However, Allen would not go with the battalion, for he passed away from congestive fever on August 31, 1846 (Missouri Republican). Lieutenant Colonel Cooke later assumed command of the march in New Mexico. Shortly thereafter, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau joined the battalion as a guide on their journey to San Diego, California. On December 9, 1846, the Mormon Battalion crossed the San Pedro River in what is now Cochise County, Arizona.

Marker erected by Boy Scouts commemorating spot of Mormon Battalion crossing the San Pedro River. The San Pedro River is in the background. Located at 31° 22.515′ N, 110° 6.826′ W.

Several days later, the Mormon Battalion arrived at another spot along the San Pedro River. Charbonneau would have been with the battalion during the only battle that the Mormon Battalion faced. During one event on December 12, 1846, the marchers came upon a herd of wild bulls. Sergeant Tyler described the events, which later came to be known as the Battle of the Bulls:

One small lead mule in a team was thrown on the horns of a bull over its mate on the near side, and the near mule, now on the off side and next to the bull, was gored. . .. One or two pack-mules were also killed. The end-gates of one or two wagons were stove in, and the sick, who were riding in them, were of course frightened. Some of the men climbed upon the wheels of the wagons and poured deadly fire into the enemy’s ranks. Some threw themselves down and allowed the beasts to run over them; others fired and dodged behind mezquit [sic] brush to re-load their guns, while the beasts kept them dodging to keep out of the way. Others, still, climbed up in small trees, there being now and then one available.

Brother Amos Cox was thrown about ten feet into the air, while a gore from three or four inches in length and about two or three in depth was cut in the inside of his thigh near its junction with the body. Sanderson sewed up the wound. Cox was an invalid for a long time, but finally recovered (Porter).

Erected by the Boy Scouts, a current marker sits near the spot of the Battle of the Bulls near the San Pedro River.

Historical marker for the Battle of the Bulls. The date of the marker is wrong. The ‘battle’ occurred on December 11, 1846. Located at 31° 37.577′ N, 110° 10.439′ W

Facing SE from Battle of the Bulls marker. San Pedro River in background

Facing north from Battle of the Bulls marker

After guiding the Mormon Battalion to their destination in San Diego, California, Charbonneau held a number of jobs. For a short time in 1847 to 1848, he was mayor of San Luis Rey, north of San Diego. Because he refused to enforce the same harsh policies toward Native Americans than his predecessors did, Charbonneau grew frustrated and resigned his position (Historical Society, Utah State). In 1866, he joined the rush to mine gold in Montana. However, he died en route and was buried at Inskip Station, Oregon. Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, through a life of adventure during westward expansion across North America, left an indelible mark on American history.

References

• Anderson, Irving W. "Sacajawea, Sacagawea, Sakakawea?." South Dakota History 8.4 (1978): 303-311.
• Colby, Susan M. Sacagawea’s Child: The Life and Times of Jean-Baptiste (Pomp) Charbonneau. University of Oklahoma Press, 2014.
• Courchane, Chalk. “Toussaint Charbonneau in the Pacific North in 1805.” Retrieved from http://www.oregonpioneers.com/bios/ToussaintCharbonneau.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwj4-rrtjlP3AhX2KEQIHdPKABcQFnoECAQQAQ&usg=AOvVaw3j3dzoY1_yayzV3-_1u3Fi
• Daily Missouri Republican (Saint Louis, Mo.: 1837) Daily Missouri Republican. St. Louis, Mo.: Charles & Paschall, 1837-1869. Vol. 15, no. 1168 (Mar. 14, 1837)-v. 47, no. 13 (Jan. 14, 1869).
• Polk, James Knox. The diary of James K. Polk during his presidency, 1845 to 1849. Vol. 6. Kraus Reprint, 1910.
• Porter, Larry C. “The Church and the Mexican-American War." Nineteenth Century Saints at War, edited by Robert C. Freeman, Religious Studies Center, BYU, 2006, 41-76.
• Reading, June. “Jean Baptiste Charbonneau." The Journal of San Diego History. vol. 11, no. 2, (1965). Retrieved from https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1965/march/charbonneau/
• Ritter, Michael Lance. Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, Man of Two Worlds. CreateSpace Publishing, 2004.
• Sorensen, Stephen B. (2008) "History May Be Searched in Vain: A Military History of the Mormon Battalion by Sherman L. Fleek," BYU Studies Quarterly, vol. 47, no. 2, article 12, 161-66. (Book review by Sherman Fleek)
• Historical Society, Utah State. Jean Baptiste Charbonneau. February 11, 1805 – May 16, 1866. Number 428. Idaho Commission for Libraries: Boise, ID. (2008). Retrieved from https://utah-primoprod.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid =digcoll_icl_ 39p16293coll3%2F5562&context=L&vid=MWDL&lang=en_US& search_scope=mw &adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=default_tab&query=any ,contains,Jean%20Baptiste%20Charbonneau&offset=0

The post Jean Baptiste Charbonneau: Son of Sacagawea appeared first on Lewis & Clark Research Database.

Neither Lewis nor Clark spoke languages other than English, and so they were reliant on the members of their expedition who did in order to communicate with the Native peoples. It is possible that, as a result, some of the intentions and nuances that accompanied their phrasing was not translated along with the words. For example, both men addressed the Native Americans that they spoke with as “Children”, though those Native Americans were adults and often leaders in their own right. This way of referring to the people they encountered has a patronizing tone that may not have been conveyed through the multiple languages necessary for conversation (Vinikas).  

Following English, the next language in the chain of translation was usually French. Though some members of the expedition, such as French Shawnee tracker George Drouillard, also spoke some Native American languages or sign language. This sign language was a common language that allowed communication between differing peoples and communities. There are some regional variations of this sign language, but ultimately it facilitated interactions between peoples with separate spoken languages (Davis). At times, using this sign language, members of the expedition were able to communicate directly to the people, however, that was not usually the case (Skarsten). So, the captains would speak English to one of the French-speaking members of the expedition, often Drouillard or Francois Labiche, a French Omaha trader from Fort Kaskaskia among a few others (Francois). Depending on the Tribe they were engaging these men would then relay the message in French to Toussaint Charbonneau, a French-Canadian fur trader who was brought along on the expedition primarily for his valuable place in this chain of communication (Toussaint). 

After being told Lewis or Clark’s words in French from one of the other men, Charbonneau would translate them into Hidatsa for his wife, Sacagawea. She was Lemhi Shoshone, and the expedition’s trade with her people during the journey proved to be invaluable. This was especially true when the expedition bargained with the Shoshones for horses (Francois). After listening to her husband’s Hidatsa, she would speak to the Shoshones in her native Shoshone. Once they had replied to her, she would relay that message back to Charbonneau and the words would travel back down the chain of translation in the other direction. This tedious process would continue until an agreement had been reached.  

At one point in the expedition, the chain of communication stretched even farther, adding yet one more person, and the language needed to speak to them. While traveling with their Shoshone guide over the mountains in late 1805, the party met the Salish, or Flatheads, people with whom their guide was able to communicate. These people were called Flatheads despite the fact that they did not practice the flattening of children’s skulls as was common to other Columbia River tribes. So, after Sacagawea spoke to their guide in Shoshone, he would speak to the Salish and receive a reply to pass back (Francois).  

Despite the complicated nature of this chain of translation, and the number of hours required for the most basic of conversations, it was clearly successful. In their journals both Lewis and Clark praised the valuable skills of their translators and referred to the vital goods and information obtained from their interactions with various Tribal Nations. The fact that these translators were able to successfully make their intentions known, ask questions, and even conduct trade across not only the many languages needed to speak between themselves, but the numerous dialects of the peoples they encountered was truly impressive (Vinikas). Without the knowledge and input of each person involved in this lengthy chain of translation, it is possible that the expedition would have failed to reach its goal.  

Sources 

Vinikas, Vincent. The Historian, vol. 67, no. 1, Wiley, 2005, pp. 127–28, . 

Davis, J. (2017). Native American signed languages. Oxford Handbooks Online.

Skarsten, M. O. George Drouillard: Hunter and Interpreter for Lewis and Clark and Fur Trader, 1807-1810. University of Nebraska Press, 2005.  

“Francois Labiche.” Discovering Lewis and Clark, Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, .  

“Toussaint Charbonneau.” Discovering Lewis and Clark, Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, .  

 U.S. Department of the Interior. (n.d.). Salish. National Parks Service. Retrieved January 31, 2022, from

Tags: French Language and the Lewis and Clark Expedition, Lewis and Clark, Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, Lewis and Clark Trail, Charbonneau, Sacagawea, Sacajawea, Drouillard, Labiche, language,

The post Chain of Communication appeared first on Lewis & Clark Research Database.

Waiting to meet with local chiefs, Clark dispatched Gravelines to invite the chiefs to council with Lewis and Clark (Clark). On October 18, 1804, two men employed by Gravelines complained to Clark that the Indians had been pilfering their traps, furs, and other articles (Clark). Clark wrote on November 6, 1804 that Gravelines was ordered to ‘take on the Arikaras in the spring,’ but continue to construct the huts out of cottonwood (Clark). During this time, Clark joined Gravelines and an Arikara chief, Too Né, as they walked along the shore of the Missouri. Gravelines described the animals, their migration patterns, and where they wintered (Ronda, xi). In addition, Né relayed the traditions held by his people regarding turtles, snakes, and the wise power of a rock or cave on the next river. Clark was dismissive of such stories, and declared them ‘not worth mentioning’ (Ronda, xii). Ronda argued that if Clark had not been so dismissive, researchers would have had a much clearer perspective on the cartography and ethnography of the area at that time (xiii).

Early the next year, Gravelines appeared in Clark’s journal on February 28, 1805. Gravelines and five others arrived with letters from Anthony Tabeau regarding the Arikaras’ peaceful intentions. Gravelines also informed Clark about the hostile intentions of the Sissetons and three Teton bands. Gravelines also told Clark of the Sioux who had robbed his party of two horses. The Arikaras returned the favor by denying the Sioux food, which was considered an insult (Clark). Captain Lewis wrote highly of Gravelines, calling him ‘honest, discreet, and an excellent boatman.’

Sometime after March 11, 1805, there was a falling-out between Toussaint Charbonneau and the leaders of the expedition. Lewis and Clark informed Charbonneau that his demands were unsatisfactory. Consequently, the expedition hired Gravelines in his place. After Charbonneau realized his mistake, he rejoined the expedition around March 17, 1805. Gravelines stayed on (Nelson, 22, 23). Lewis also wrote that Gravelines would bring a few of the Arikara chiefs to Washington (Lewis, April 7, 1805). Sometime after this point, Gravelines worked with the Arikara Chief Too Né to construct a map of the Arikara world (Jenkinson). According to Steinke (589) Gravelines translated the descriptive place names on the map of the Arikara nation, drawn by Too Né.

Map drawn by Too Né with Joseph Gravelines, (Carte ethnographique de la vallée du Missouri, Bibliothèque nationale de France)

The expedition met Gravelines with a Sioux interpreter, Mr. Dorion. On September 12, 1806, Clark read the instructions that the President had given Gravelines and Dorion. The Arikara chief had died in Washingon, and Gravelines had instructions to teach agriculture to the Arikaras, though Cox (35) wrote that Gravelines was to teach agriculture to the Sioux. Dorion had instructions to accompany Gravelines (Clark). Gravelines also brought $300 worth of gifts, a letter of condolence from the President regarding the death of Chief Too Né. Gravelines had the responsibility of informing the Arikaras that their Chief had died (Jenkinson). The Arikaras were upset, and the death of their chief only added to their frustrations in their war with the Mandans. Consequently, Gravelines was found to have been ‘ill-treated’ after delivering the news to the tribe (Expedition, 437; Saindon, 431).

After the expedition, little is known of Gravelines. Researchers suspect that Gravelines did not remain long with the Arikaras since Indian hostilities increased between the Natives and Euro-Americans. Upset with taking Native land and lack of natural immunity from communicable diseases, eventually even the fur traders were no longer welcome on Indian lands. However, Gravelines was at least partly responsible for allowing the expedition’s return through Indian country safer (Saindon, 431).

Interpreters such as Gravelines and Tabeau served not only a vital function for the expedition, but also in providing a history of the tribes they encountered. Gravelines and Tabeau explained to Lewis and Clark that the Arikaras were once members of the tribes that were at one point related to the Pawnees, but had since separated. The languages had diverged from the original Pawnee. However, Gravelines and Tabeau served Lewis and Clark during their successful councils with the Arikaras (William).

References

• Clark, William. “October 8, 1804 Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.” Lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu, lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1804-10-08#lc.jrn.1804-10-08.01. Accessed 21 Oct. 2021.
• Clark, William. “October 10, 1804 Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.” Lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu, lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1804-10-10. Accessed 21 Oct. 2021.
• Clark, William. “October 18, 1804 Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.” Lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu, lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1804-10-18. Accessed 21 Oct. 2021.
• Clark, William. “November 6, 1804 Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.” Lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu, lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1804-11-06. Accessed 21 Oct. 2021.
• Clark, William. “February 28, 1805 Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.” Lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu, lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1805-02-28#lc.jrn.1805-02-28.01. Accessed 21 Oct. 2021.
• Cox, Isaac Joslin. The early exploration of Louisiana. Vol. 2. No. 1-4. University of Cincinnati Press, 1906.
• Clark, William. Journals of the Lewis & Clark Expedition, September 12, 1806. (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press / University of Nebraska-Lincoln Libraries-Electronic Text Center, 2005). https://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1806-09-12#lc.jrn.1806-09-12.02
• Clark, William. Journals of the Lewis & Clark Expedition, October 2, 1804. (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press / University of Nebraska-Lincoln Libraries-Electronic Text Center, 2005). https://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1804-10-02#lc.jrn.1804-10-02.02
• DeMallie, Raymond J., and Gilles Havard. "Writing the history of North America from Indian country: The view from the north-central Plains, 1800-1870." Journal de la Société des Américanistes 105.105-1 (2019): 13-40.
• Expedition, Lewis and Clark. Letters of the Lewis and Clark Expedition: With Related Documents, 1783-1854. Edited by Donald Jackson, 2nd ed., University of Illinois Press, 1978.
• Jenkinson, Clay. “Joseph Gravelines Discovering Lewis & Clark ®.” Www.lewis-Clark.org, www.lewis-clark.org/article/2311. Accessed 21 Oct. 2021.
• Lewis, Meriwether. “April 7, 1805 Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.” Lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu, lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1805-04-07#lc.jrn.1805-04-07.02. Accessed 21 Oct. 2021.
• Morris, Larry E. "We Descended with Great Velocity." The Fate of the Corps. Yale University Press, 2008. 5-22.
• Nelson, W. Dale. Interpreters with Lewis and Clark: The Story of Sacagawea and Toussaint Charbonneau. University of North Texas Press, 2003.
• Ronda, James P. Finding the west: Explorations with Lewis and Clark. UNM Press, 2006.
• Saindon, Robert, editor. Explorations Into the World of Lewis and Clark. Digital Scanning, 2003.
• Steinke, Christopher. "“Here is my country”: Too Né’s Map of Lewis and Clark in the Great Plains." William & Mary Quarterly 71.4 (2014): 589-610.
• Vaugeois, Denis. "Toussaint Charbonneau." Recherches Amérindiennes Au Québec, vol. 37, no. 2, 2007, pp. 157-159,175. ProQuest, https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url= https://www-proquest-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/scholarly-journals/toussaint-charbonneau/docview/1697228472/se-2?accountid=7374.
• William, Glenn. "For the Want of an Interpreter – Lewis and Clark – Corps of Discovery – U.S. Army Center of Military History." U.S. Army Center of Military History, 31 Jan. 2021, history.army.mil/lc/The%20People/interpreter.htm#end9. Accessed 5 Nov. 2021.
• Tags:
• Too Ne, Map, Lewis and Clark, Lewis and Clark Expedition, Arikara, Earth Lodge, French Language and the Lewis and Clark Expedition

The post Joseph Gravelines appeared first on Lewis & Clark Research Database.